Biografi Umar Bin Al-Khaththab

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A.    Background

In the public eye, tests have acquired an aura of infallibility in our culture of mass producing everything, including the education of school children. Everyone wants a test for everything, especially if the test is. cheap, quickly administered, and scored instantaneously. But we saw in Chapter 4 that while the standardized test industry has become a powerful juggernaut of influence on decisions about people's lives, it also has come under severe criticism from the public (Kahn, 2000). A more balanced viewpoint is offered by Bailey (1998, p. 204): "One of the disturbing things about tests is the extent to which many people accept the results uncritically, while others believe that all testing is invidious. But tests are simply measurement tools: It is the use to which we put their results that can be appropriate or inappropriate."

It is clear by now that tests are one ofa number ofpossible types ofassessment. In Chapter 1, an important distinction was made between testing and assessing. Tests are formal procedures, usually administered within strict time limitations, to sample the performance of a test-taker in a specified domain. Assessment connotes a much broader concept in that most of the time when teachers are teaching, they are also assessing. Assessment includes all occasions from informal impromptu observations and comments up to and including tests.

Early in the decade of the 1990s, in a culture of rebellion against the notion that all people and all skills could be measured by traditional tests, a novel concept emerged that began to be labeled "alternative" assessment. As teachers and students were becoming aware of the shortcomings of standardized tests, "an alternative to standardized testing and all the problems found with such testing" (Huerta-Macias, 1995, p. 8) was proposed. That ajuan was to assemble additional measures of students-portfolios, journals, observations, self-assessments, peer-assessments, and the like-in an effort to triangulate data about students. For some, such alternatives held "ethical potential" (Lynch, 2001, p. 228) in their promotion.of fairness and the balance of power relationships in the classroom.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A.    Performance Based Assessment

Before proceeding to a direct consideration of types of alternatives in assessment, a word about performance-based assessment is in order. There has been a great deal of press in recent years about performance-based assessment, sometimes merely called performance assessment (Shohamy, 1995; Norris et aI., 1998). Is this different from what is being called "alternative assessment"?

The push toward more performance.: based assessment is part of the same general educational reform movement that has raised strong objections to using standardized test scores as the only measures of student competencies (see, for example, Valdez Pierce & O'Malley, 1992; Shepard & Bliem, 1993). The argument, as you can guess, was that standardized tests do not elicit actual performance on the part of test-takers. Ifa child were asked, for example, to write a description of earth as seen from space, to work cooperatively with peers to design a three-dimensional model of the solar system, to explain the project to the rest of the class, and to take notes on a videotape about space travel, traditional standardized testing would be involved in none of those performances. Performance-based assessment, however, would require the performance of the above-named actions, or samples thereof, which would be systematically evaluated through direct ob ervation by a teacher and/or possibly by self and peers.

Performance-based assessment implies productive, observable skills, such as speaking and writing, of content-valid tasks. Such performance usually, but not always, brings with it an air of authenticity-real-world tasks that students have had time to develop. It often implies an integration of language skills, perhaps all four skills in the case of project work. Because the tasks that students perform are consistent with course goals and curriculum, students and teachers are likely to be more motivated to perform them, as opposed to a set of multiple-choice questions about facts and figures regarding the solar system.

O'Malley and Valdez Pierce (1996) considered performance-based assessment to be a subset of authentic assessment. In other words, not all authentic assessment is performance-based. One could infer that reading, listenillg, and thinking have many authentic manifestations, but since they are not directly observable in and of themselves, they are not performance-based. According to O'Malley· and Valdez Pierce (p. 5), the following are characteristics of performance assessment:

1.      Students make a constructed response.

2.      They engage in bigber-order tbinking, with open-ended tasks.

3.      Tasks are meaningfu engaging, and autbentic.

4.      Tasks call for the integration oflanguage skills.

5.      Both process and product are assessed.

6.      Depth of a student's mastery is emphasized over breadth.

Performance-based assessment needs to be approached with caution. It is tempting for teachers to assume that if a student is doing something, then the process hasfulfilled its own goal and the evaluator-needs only to make a mark inthe grade book that says "accomplished» next to a particular competency. In reality, performances as assessment procedures need to be treated with the same rigor as traditional tests. This implies that teachers should :

·         state the overall goal of the performance,

·         specify the objectives (criteria) of the performance in detail,

·         prepare students for performance in stepwise progressions,

·         use a reliable evaluation form, checklist; or rating sheet,

·         treat performances as opportunities for giving feedback and provide that feedback systematically, and if possible, utilize self-and peer-assessments judiciously.

To sum up, performance assessment is not completely synonymous with the concept of alternative assessment. Rather, it is best understood as one of the primary traits of the many available alternatives to assessment.

B.     Portfolios

One of the most popular alternatives in assessment, especially within a framework of communicative language teaching, is portfolio development. According to Genesee and Upshur (1996), a portfolio is "a purposeful collection ofstudents' work that demonstrates their efforts, progress, and achievements in given areas" (p. 99). Portfolios include materials such as:

·         essays and compositions in draft and fmal forms,

·         reports, project outlines,

·         poetry and creative prose,

·         artwork, photos, newspaper or magazine clippings,

·         audio and/or video recordings of presentations, demonstrations, etc,

·         journals, diaries, and other personal reflections,

·         tests, test scores, and written homework and exercises,

·         notes on lecturer

·         self· and peer-assessments

·         comments, evaluations, and checklists.

The advantages of engaging students in portfolio development have been extolled in a number ofsources (Genesee & Upshur, 1996; O'Malley &Valdez Pierce, 1996; Brown & Hudson, 1998; Weigle, 2002). A synthesis of those characteristics gives us a number of potential benefits. Portfolios :

·      foster intrinsic motivation, responsibility, and ownership,

·      promote student-teacher interaction with the teacher as facilitator,

·      individualize learning and celebrate the uniqueness of each student,

·      provide tangible evidence of a student's work,

·      facilitate Critical thinking, self-assessment, and revision processes, • offer opportunities for collaborative work with peers, and

·      permit assessment of multiple dimensions of language learning.

Successful portfolio development will depend on following a number of steps and guidelines:

1.   State objectives clearly.

Pick one or more of the CRADLE attributes named above and specify them as objectives of developing a portfolio. Show how tho:5e purposes are connected to, integrated with, and/or a reinforcement of your already stated curricular goals. A portfolio attains maximum authenticity and washback when it is an integral part of a curriculum, not jiist an optional box of materials. Show students how their portfolios will include materials from the course they are taking and how that collection will enhance curricular goals.

2.   Give guidelines on what materials to include.

 Once the objectives have been determined, name the types of work that should be included.There is some disagreement among "experts" about how much negotiation should take place between student and,teacher over those materials. Hamp-Lyons and Condon (2000) suggested advantages for student control of portfolio contents,Dut teacher guidance, will keep students on sasaran with curricular objectives. It is helpful to give clear directions on how to get started since many students will never have compiled a portfolio and may be mystified about what to do. A sample portfolio from a previous student can help to stimulate some thoughts on what to include.

3.   Communicate assessment criteria to students.

This is both the most important aspect of portfolio development and the most complex.Two sourcesself-assessment and teacher assessment-nlust be incorporated in order for students to receive the maximum benefit. Self-assessment should be as clear and simple as possible. O'Malley and Valdez Pierce (1996) suggested the following halfpage self-evaluation of a writing sample (with spaces for students to write) for elementary school English language students.

C.    Journals

A journal is a log (or "account") of one's thoughts, feelings, reactions, assessments, ideas, or progress toward goals, usually written with little attention to structure, form, or correctness. Learners can articulate their thoughts without the threat of those thoughts being judged later (usually by the teacher). Sometimes journals are rambling sets of verbiage that represent a stream of consciousness with no particular point, purpose, or audience. Fortunately, models of journal use in educational practice have sought to tighten up this style of journal in· order to give them some focus (Staton et al., 1987). The result is the emergence of a number of overlapping categories or purposes in journal writing, such as the following:

·      language-learning logs

·      grammar journals

·      responses to readings

·      strategies-based learning logs

·      self-assessment reflections

·      diaries of attitudes, feelings, and other affective factors

·      acculturation logs

Most classroom-oriented journals are what have now come to be known as student through dialogues or responses. For the best results, those responses should be dispersed across a course at regular intervals, perhaps weekly or biweekly. One of the principal objectives in. a student's dialogue journal is to carry on a conversation with. the teacher. Through dialogue journals, teachers can become better acquainted with their students, in terms of both their learning progress and their affective states, and thus become better equipped to meet students'individual needs.

The following journal entry from an advanced student from China, and the teacher's response, is an illustration of the kind of dialogue that can take place.

Dialogue journal sample

Teacher's response:

This is a powerful piece of writing because you really communicate what you were feeling. You used vivid details, like "eating tasteless noodles," "my head seemed to be broken" and "rice gruel, which has to cook more than three hours and is very delicious." These make it easy for the reader to picture exactly what you were going through. The other strong point about this piece is that you bring the reader full circle by beginning and ending with lithe noodles./I

Being alone when you are sick is difficult. Now, I know why you were so quiet in class. If you want to do another entry related to this one, you could have a dialogue with your "sick" self. What would your "healthy" self say to the "sick" self? Is there some advicethat could be exchanged about how to prevent illness or how to take care of yourself better when you do get sick? Start the dialogue with your "sick" self speaking first.

It is important to turn the advantages and potential drawbacks of journals into positive general steps and guidelines for using journals as assessment instruments. The following steps are not coincidentally parallel to those cited above for portfolio development:

1. Sensitively introduce students to the concept ofjournal writing.

2. State the objective(s) of the journal.

The list of types of journals at the beginning of this section may coincide with the following examples of some purposes of journals:

·         Language-learning logs.

·         Grammar journals.

·         Responses to readings.

·         Strategies-based learning logs

·         Self-assessment reflections

·         Diaries of attitudes, feelings, and other affective factors.

·         Acculturation logs.

4.   Give guidelines on what kinds oftopics to include.

5.   Carefully specify the criteria for assessing or grading journals.

6.   Provide optimal feedback in your responses. McNamara (1998, p. 39) recommended three different kinds of feedback to journals:

·         cheerleading feedback, in which you celebrate successes with the students or encourage them to persevere through difficulties,

·         instructional feedback, in which you suggest strategies or materials, suggest ways to fme-tune strategy use, or instruct students in their writing, and

·         reality-check feedback, in which you help the students set more realistic expectations for their language abilities.

In sum, how do journals score on principles of assessment? Practicality remains relatively low, although the appropriation of electronic communication increases practicality by offering teachers and students convenient, rapid (and legible!) means of responding. Reliability can be maintained by the journal entries adhering to stated purposes and objectives, but because of individual variations in writing and the accompanying variety of responses, reliability may reach only a moderate level. Content and face validity are very high ifthe journal entries are closely interwoven with curriculum goals (which in turn reflect real-world needs). In the category of washback, the potential in dialogue journals is off the charts!

D.    Conferences and Interviews

Conferences are not limited to drafts of written work. Including portfolios and journals discussed above, the list of possible functions and subject matter for conferencing is substantial:

·         commenting on drafts of essays and reports

·         reviewing portfolios

·         responding to journals,

·         advising on a student's plan for an oral presentation

·         assessing a ajuan for a project

·         giving feedback on the results of performance on a test

·         clarifying understanding of a reading

·         exploring strategies-based options for enhancement or compensation

·         focusing on aspects of oral production

·         checking a student's self-assessment of a performance

·         setting personal goals for the near future

·         assessing general progress in a course

Conferences must assume that the teacher plays the role of a facilitator and guide, not of an administrator, of a formal assessment. In this intlinsically motivating atmosphere, students need to understand that the teacher is an ally who is encouraging self-reflection and improvement. So that the student will be as candid as possible in self-asseSSing, the teacher should not consider a conference as something to be scored or graded. Conferences are by nature formative, not summative, and their primary purpose is to offer positive washback.

Genesee and Upshur (1996, p. 110) offered a number of generic kinds of questions that may be useful to pose in a conference:

·      What did you like about this work?

·      What do you think you did well?

·      How does it show improvement from previous work? Can you show me the improvement?

·      Are there things about this work you do not like? Are there things you would like to improve?

·      Did you have any difficulties with this piece of work? If so, where, and what did you do [will you do] to overcome them?

·      What strategies did you use to figure out the meaning of words you could not understand?

·      What did you do when you did not know a word that you wanted to write?

How do conferences and interviews score in terms of principles ofassessment? Their practicality, as is thus for many of the alternatives assessments low because they are time consuming. Reliability will vary between conferences and interviews. In the case of conferences, it may not be important to have rater reliability because the whole purpose is to offer individualized attention, which will vary greatly from student to student. For interviews, a relatively high level of reliability should be maintained with careful attention to objectives and procedures. Face validity for both can be maintained at a high level due to their individualized nature. As long as the subject matter of the conference/interview is clearly focused on the course and course objectives, content validity should also be upheld. Washback potential and authenticity are high for conferences, but 'possibly only moderate for interviews unless the results of the interview are clearly folded into subsequent learning.

E.     Observations

All teachers, whether they are aware of it or not, observe their students in the classroom almost constantly_ Virtually every question. every response, and almost every nonverbal behavior is, at some level of perception, noticed. All those intuitive perceptions are stored as little bits and pieces of information about students that can form a composite impression of a student's ability. Without eyer administering a test or a quiz, teachers know a lot about their students. In fact, experienced teachers are so good at this almost subliminal process of assessment that their estimates of a student's competence are often highly correlated with actual independently administered test scores. (See Acton, 1979, for an example.)

How do all these chunks of information become stored in a teacher's brain cells? Usually not through rating sheets and checklists and carefully completed observation charts. Still, teachers' intuitions about students' performance are not infallible, and certainly both the reliability and face validity of their feedback to students can be increased with the help of empirical means of observing their language performance. The value of systematic observation of students has been extolled for decades (Flanders, 1970; Moskowitz, 1971; Spada & Frolich, 1995), and its utilization greatly enhances a teacher's intuitive impressions by offering tangible corroboration of conclusions. Occasionally, intuitive information is disconfirmed by observation data.

We will not be concerned in this section with the kind of observation that rates a formal presentation or any other prepared, prearranged performance in which the student is fully aware of some evaluative measure being applied, and in which the teacher scores or comments on the performance.We are talking about observation as a systematic, planned procedure for real-time, almost surreptitious recording of student lisan and nonverbal behavior. One of the objectives of such observation is to assess students without their awareness (and possible consequent anxiety) of the observation so that the naturalness of their linguistic performance is maximized.

What kinds of student performance can be usefully observed? Consider the folLowing possibilities:

1.      Potential observation foci

·      sentence-level oral production skills (see microskills, Chapter 7) -pronunciation of sasaran sounds, intonation, etc. -grammatical features (verb tenses, question formation, etc.)

·      discourse-level skills (conversation rules, turn-taking, and other macroskills)

·      interaction with classmates (cooperation, frequency of oral production)

·      reactions to particular students, optimal productive pairs and g.fOUPS, which "zones" of the classroom are more vocal, etc.

·      frequency of student-initiated responses (whole class, group work)

·      quality of teacher-elicited responses

·      latencies, pauses, silent periods (number of seconds, minutes, etc.)

·      length of utterances

·      evidence of listening comprehension (questions, clarifications, attentiongiving lisan and nonverbal behavior)

·      affective states (apparent self-esteem, extroversion, anxiety, motivation, etc.)

·      evidence of attention-span issues, learning style preferences, etc.

·      students' lisan or nonverbal response to materials, types of activities, teaching styles

·      use of strategic options in comprehension or production (use of comFNunication strategies, avoidance, etc.)

·      culturally specific linguistic and nonverbal factors (kinesics; proxemics; use of humor, slang, metaphor, etc.)

The list could be even more specific to suit the characteristics of students, the focus ofa lesson or module, the objectives of a curriculum, and other factors.The list might expand, as well, to include other possible observed performance. In order to carry out classroom observation, it is ofcourse important to take the following steps:

1.   Determine the specific objectives of the observation.

2.   Decide how many students will be observed at one time.

3.   Set up the logistics for making t:mn0ticed observations.

4.   Design a system for recording observed performances.

5.   Do not overestimate the number of different elements you can observe at one time-keep them very limited.

6.   Plan how many observations you will make.

7.   Determine specifically how you will use the results.

2.      Observation checklist, student errors

Each of the 30-odd checklists that were eventually completed represented a two hour class period and was filled in with "ticks" to show the occurrences and the follow-up in the appropriate cell.

Rating scales have also been suggested for recording observations. One type of rating scale asks teachers to indicate the frequency of occurrence of sasaran performance on a separate frequency scale (always = 5; never = 1).

F.     Self And Peer Assessments

A conventional view of language assessment might consider the notion of selfand peer-assessment as an abstrak reversal of politically correct power relationships. After all, how could learners who are still in the process of acquisition, especially the early processes, be capable of rendering an accurate assessment of their" own performance? Nevertheless, a closer look at the acquisition of any skill reveals the importance, if not the necessity, of self-assessment and the benefit of peer·assessment. What successful learner has not developed the ability to 'monitor his or her own performance and to use the data gathered for adjustments <and corrections? Most successful learners extend the learning process well beyond the classroom and the presence of a teacher or tutor, autonomously mastering the art of self-assessment. Where peers are available to render assessments, the advantage of such additional input is obvious.

Self-assessment derives its theoretical justification from a number of wellestablished principles of second language acquisition. The prinCiple of autonomy starids_ qut as one of the primary foundation stones of successful learning. The ability to set one's own goals both within and beyond the structure ofa classroom curriculum, to pursue them without the presence of an external prod, and to independently monitor that pursuit are all keys to success. Developing intrinsic motivation that comes from a self-propelled desire to excel is at the top of the list of successful acquisition of any set of skills.

Peer-assessment appeals to similar prinCiples, the most obvious ofwhich is cooperative learning. Many people go through a whole regimen of education from kindergarten up through a graduate degree and never come to appreciate the value of collaboration in learning-the benefit of a community oflearners capable of teaching each 'other something. Peer-assessment is simply one arm of a plethoIa of tasks and procedures within the domain of learner-centered and collaborative education.

Researchers (such as Brown & Hudson, 1998) agree that the above theoretical underpinnings of self-and peer-assessment offer certain benefits: direct involvement of students in their own destiny, the encouragement of autonomy, and increased motivation because of their self-involvement. Of course, some noteworthy drawbacks must also be taken into account. Subjectivity is a primary obstacle, to overcome. Students may be either too harsh on themselves or too self-flattering, or they may not have the necessary tools to make an accurate assessment. Also, especially in the case of direct assessments of performance (see below), they may not be able to discern their own rrors. In contrast, Bailey (1998) conducted a study in which learners showed moderately high correlations (between .58 and .64) between self rated oral production ability and scores on the OPI, which suggests that in -the assessment of general competence, learners' self-assessments may be more accurate than pne might suppose.

1.      Types of Self-and Peer-Assessment

a)       Assessment of a specific performance.

In this category, a student typically monitors him-or herself-in either oral or written production-and renders some kind of evaluation of performance. The evaluation takes place immediately or very soon after the performance. Thus, having made an oral presentation, the student (or a peer) fills out a checklist that rates performance on a defined scale. Or perhaps the student views a video-recorded lecture and completes a self-corrected ·comprehension quiz. A journal mayserve as a tool for such"self-assessment. Peer editing is an excellent example of direct assessment of a specific performance.

Today, the availability of media opens up a number of possibilities for self-and peer-assessment beyond the classroom. Internet sites such as Dave's ESL Cafe (http://www.eslcafe.coml) offer many self-correcting quizzes and tests. On this and other similar sites, a learner may access a grammar or vocabulary quiz on the Internet and then self-score the result, which may be followed by comparing with a partner. Television and film media also offer convenient resources for self-and peerassessment. Gardner (1996) recommended·.that students in non-English-speaking countries access bilingual news, films, and television programs and then self-assess their comprehension ability. He also noted that video versions of movies with subtitles can be viewed first without the subtitles, then with them, as another form of self-and/or peer-assessment.

b.  Indirect assessment of [general) competence.

Indirect self-or peer-assessment targets larger slices of time with a view to rendering an evaluatioIl'of general ability, as opposed to one specific, relatively time-cortstrained performance. The distinction between direct and indirect assessments is the classic competence-performance distinction. Self-and peer-assessments of performance are limited in time and focus to a relatively short performance. Assessments of competence may encompass a lesson over several days, a module, or even a whole term of course work, and the objective is to ignore minor, nonrepeating performance flaws and thus to evaluate general ability. A list of attributes can offer a scaled rating, from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree," on such items as these:

In a successful experiment to introduce self-assessment in his advanced intermediate pre-university ESL class, Phillips (2000) created a questionnaire (Figure 10.2) through which his students evaluated themselves on their class participation. The items were simply formatted with just three options to,C;h, c for ea. h <;Iltegory, which made the process easy for students to perform.They completed' the questionnaire at midterm, which was followed up immediately with a teacher-student conference during which students identified weaknesses and set goals for the remainder of the term.

Of course, indirect self-and peer-assessment is not confined to scored rating sheets and questionnaires. An ideal genre for self-assessment is through journals, where students engage in more.open-ended assessment and/or make their own further comments on the results of completed checklists.

c.       Metacognitive assessment [for setting goals}

 Some kinds of evaluation are more strategic in nature, with the purpose not just ofviewing past performance-or competence but of setting goals and maintaining an eye on the process oftheir pursuit. Personal goal-setting has the advantage offostering intrinsic motivation and of providing learners with that extra-special impetus from having set and accomplished one's own goals. Strategic planning and self-monitoring can take the form of journal entries, choices from a list of possibilities, questionnaires, or cooperative (oral) pair or group planning.

On the back of this same card, which was filled out at the end ofthe week, was the student's self-assessment: